However, in honor of the many U.S. Army Artillery units that will be celebrating their Saint Barbara’s Day Ball this weekend, The Armed Historian has decided to share two famous women in the history of the U.S. Artillery, as well as one additional lesser known female Artillery officer.

Saint Barbara

St Barbara as seen on the Order of Saint Barbara Medal, United States Field Artillery Association

The first woman on this list has to be Saint Barbara. After all, she is the patron saint of the Field Artillery.

Saint Barbara was the daughter of a rich pagan, Dioscorus, who ruled the city of Nicomedia, Asia Minor in the 4^th century. Dioscorus was a jealous and protective father who had a tower built to shelter Barbara from the outside world. During her forced solitude in the tower, Barbara gave herself to study and prayer. She converted to Christianity and was baptized in secret. While her father was away, Barbara convinced tower builders to install three windows in her bath house in honor of the Holy Trinity. When Dioscorus found out, he was enraged and had Barbara dragged in front of a tribunal where she was tortured, convicted, and beheaded by her own father. As he was riding home from the execution, Dioscorus was struck and killed by lightning.

Because of the timing and nature of Dioscorus’ death, when she was canonized, Saint Barbara was made the patron saint of those who died by lightning. As gunpowder became prevalent on the battlefield, the sounds and explosions that gunpowder produced was similar to lightning. Artillery, which was dependent on gunpowder, was prone to exploding on the battlefield due to poor storage of the powder, flying sparks from the cannons, and improper clearing of cannons between volleys. Due to this, Saint Barbara has taken her place as the patron saint of the King of Battle.

Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley (Molly Pitcher)

“Sergeant Molly” Pitcher swabbing the gun during the Battle of Monmouth

Mary Ludwig was born in Pennsylvania in the mid-1740s. She lived the typical life of a colonial woman at the time, eventually finding herself a husband in the local barber, William Hays. When the Revolutionary War broke out, William enlisted in the Continental Army joining Proctor’s 4^th Pennsylvania Artillery. Following the tradition of a Soldier’s wife that is centuries old, Mary left to follow her husband as he served. Mary joined the camp followers and helped bring water to the Soldiers while they fought the battle. She likely earned the nickname “Molly Pitcher” while serving as a water girl when the Soldiers would yell out “Molly! Pitcher!”

In June, 1778, the Continental Army was lined up at Monmouth, New Jersey and prepared to fight the British. The temperature was well into the 100s and Molly Pitcher and the other water girls were prepared for a long day having located two springs near the battlefield to service the Soldiers. The battle began and the heat and confusion rose on the field. At some point in the battle, Molly was taking water to her husband’s artillery firing line where she saw William being carried off the field, either by heat or enemy fire.

Knowing that the Continental Army was short on artillerymen and knowing how vital every man was to the firing line, Molly ran to her husband’s gun. She quickly picked up his ramrod and took his spot by swabbing and loading the cannon. At one point in the battle, a British cannon ball passed directly through Molly’s legs, tearing away her petticoats. According to the contemporary reports, Molly looked down and observed that “it was lucky that it did not pass a little higher, for in that case it might have carried away something else”.

The end of the day saw the British Army retreating towards Sandy Hook. General Washington, himself, began to ask about the woman he had seen loading a cannon. Molly was brought to the general who awarded her the rank of Sergeant in recognition of her bravery.

Following the war, “Sergeant Molly”, as Mary had now become known, and William returned to Carlisle, Pennsylvania. William died in 1786, and Sergeant Molly married John McCauley in 1793. In 1822, Sergeant Molly was awarded an annual pension by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania for her services during the war. She is one of a handful of women who were awarded military pension for the Revolutionary War.

In remembrance of her heroism on the battlefield, the United States Field Artillery Association created the Artillery Order of Molly Pitcher. The Artillery Order of Molly Pitcher is dedicated to the spouses of Artillerymen in the United States Army who have volunteered their time to the improvement of the Field Artillery.

Agustina de Aragon

Agustina de Aragon fighting off the French at the Battle of Zaragoza

The last woman for this article is Agustina de Aragon. Agustina is the only woman on this list that does not have personal ties to the United States Army Field Artillery; however, one would be hard pressed to talk about famous women of the Field Artillery without mentioning Agustina.

In 1808, Le Grande Armee under Napoleon Bonaparte was successfully marching across Spain. In early June, French forces were situated outside of the Spanish town of Zaragoza. This was a small town that had not seen war in 450 years, was flooded with refugees, and defended by a small provincial force. On 15 June, the French had managed to make their way to the Portillo. Agustina was making her way to the front to deliver apples to the hungry artillerymen near the Portillo where she saw the Spanish lines break under the French assault. With French forces only a few yards away and the Spanish forces running back, Agustina ran forward, loaded a cannon, and proceeded to fire into the oncoming French.

At the sight of this lone woman operating the cannon so close to the approaching enemy, the fleeing Spaniards stopped running. In fact, the Spanish forces turned around and ran back to the front lines to support Agustina. Because of her actions, Agustina rallied the Spanish forces. After a bloody fight, the French gave up on the siege of Zaragoza. Le Grande Armee did return to Zaragoza after a few weeks and this time, the French forces succeeded in forcing the town to surrender.

Agustina did not give up her fight against the French, though. She went on to serve as a leader in the resistance forces in Spain. Agustina was captured by the French where she saw her son die at French hands, by some accounts. This action caused Agustina to mount a daring escape. Eventually, Agustina joined the allied forces that were fighting for the Duke of Wellington. Agustina was granted a commission, becoming Wellington’s only female officer. Agustina rose to the rank of captain and by the time of the Battle of Vitoria, she was serving as a battery commander.

The Field Artillery has had many colorful and powerful figures throughout its history. There have been many points in history were the course of a battle, and indeed the war itself, was determined by the actions of the Artillery and those who served the guns. These are just a few women who have helped place their immortal stamp on that proud branch of the service.

Three times, I’ve stood on that field. Three times, I’ve listened to the charge. This last time, I spent a nervous ten minutes looking for my wife among the crowd. After each one of these homecomings, I would then go out for dinner to the happy greetings of “welcome home” and “congratulations” from the local businesses. True, these are businesses near the largest base in the free world, but still it is a nice sentiment. The fact of the matter is, the country has treated the OEF, OIF, and OND veterans very well. Hell, it was my military affiliation that got me my wife.

There was a group that we were not that nice to, however. There was a group of veterans that came back from their tours of hell to absolutely nothing. Worse than nothing, they came back to open hostility. Draftees on top of that. That group was the Vietnam Veterans. I love this country, but I am deeply ashamed of how we treated our veterans of the Vietnam War in the 60s. We told them go to war or go to jail, and then we treat them with great amounts of disrespect for it.

On Monday May 21st, though, America’s Hammer, III Corps, is trying to set things right. To kick off Phantom Warriors Week, III Corps will be offering this nation’s Vietnam Veterans the welcome home ceremony that they deserve. It may have been late in coming, but it is about time that we offer this welcome home to them.

There are many facets of World War II that are carved into the national memory. The attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 is one of these events. Others include the storming of the beaches of Normandy, the Battle of Midway, the Doolittle Raid dropping the first bombs on Tokyo, the Battle of Iwo Jima, and, of course, the dropping of the only two atomic bombs to be used against an enemy nation at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Most Americans are aware that the majority of the fighting against the Japanese took place in the Pacific. With the exception of Pearl Harbor, these battles and preparations seemed far removed from the United States. The idea that the continental United States could be attacked seemed almost unthinkable. What is not common knowledge is the fact that Japan achieved just that, a bombing of the United States mainland. Japan responded to the Doolittle Raid with a bold and audacious bombing of the Oregon forests. The fact that widespread knowledge was never achieved does not diminish the efforts of the Japanese Armed Forces in overcoming the American defenses.

Pearl Harbor and the Pacific Theater

Japan was able to accomplish a great success in its attack against Pearl Harbor. In a single morning, Japan was able to severely degrade, if not complete eliminate, the capabilities of the United States’ Pacific Fleet and the only major threat to Japanese plans for conquest. In the course of a few hours, the United States lost several ships of various types, aircraft, and trained personnel. The Japanese also accomplished the goal of sending a large psychological shock rippling throughout the general population of the United States. More importantly, Japan was also able to cut off the various American outposts and bases in the Pacific from the aid and support that was provided by the Pacific Fleet.

With the success of Pearl Harbor, Japan was able to launch quick attacks against targets in the Pacific, quickly seizing islands and territories protected by the overwhelmed and now under supported Asiatic Fleet. Japan continued to expand its control in the Pacific throughout the early months of 1942 as the influence and control of the United States continued to diminish. Each successful attack that the Japanese launched sent further shocks ringing through the American government.
As the Japanese progressed towards Australia, so did the preparations of the United States. With the Philippines holding out in a desperate and losing situation as they fought against the Japanese, the United States was making plans to defend the last few islands and prepare for a counteroffensive against the Japanese fleet. Admiral Chester W. Nimitz was placed in charge of the Pacific Fleet, where he was able to launch several attacks against Japanese Islands and set the stage for the next dramatic attack. The proposed attack was a daring act of courage and symbolic display.
The Doolittle Raid

President Franklin Roosevelt saw the Pacific Theater unfold as a continued tragedy for the American people. The surprise attack on Pearl Harbor was followed quickly by continued losses for the United States. President Roosevelt wanted a daring assault that would aid in lifting the devastated American morale as well as prove that the United States was capable of responding to the several attacks it had suffered. This answer came from a Lieutenant Colonel in the Army Air Forces by the name of Jimmy Doolittle.

The concept of the operation was simple. Lieutenant Colonel Doolittle would lead a group of B-25 medium bombers on a raid of the Japanese homeland. After long preparations and testing, it was proven that the bombers would be able to take off from the deck of an aircraft carrier. This was hugely significant because the deck of an aircraft carrier was shorter than the average runway used by the Army Air Forces. Lieutenant Colonel Doolittle helped to redesign the B-25 bombers to decrease weight while increasing fuel capacity and manned 16 B-25 bombers with a crew of volunteers.

Once preparations for Lieutenant Colonel Doolittle’s mission were complete, the planes and crew were placed aboard the aircraft carrier USS Hornet and sailed towards Japan. The USS Hornet was joined by another aircraft carrier, the USS Enterprise which was to provide air support, as well as 14 other support ships to make up what was being called Task Force 16. Task Force 16 then proceeded towards Japan with its secret mission to bomb various Japanese cities, including Tokyo.

On 18 April 1942, Task Force 16 was within a few hours from its position to launch its aerial assault. The task force, however, ran into a problem early on. The task force was discovered by a small Japanese boat, and despite sinking the boat, a radio signal was sent to warn the Japanese of the task force’s approach. The discovery of the task force left the Americans with the choice of abandoning the mission by pushing the B-25s into the ocean in order to clear the flight deck for the fighter planes or to launch the mission 200 miles farther from the target than planned for. After some quick fuel calculations, it was determined that the bombers would be able to reach their primary targets and be able to reach safe air space where the pilots might be able to land or, at the very least, be able to bail out of the bombers and parachute into a friendly country.

The decision was made to launch, and all bombers reached their targets, including Tokyo. Despite the fact that only one bomber was able to land in Russia, only a three of the 80 men died as a result of the bail out with 73 of those men surviving to return to the Allies. More importantly, the mission had accomplished its symbolic goal as well. The United States proved that it was still capable of fighting the Japanese, the Army Air Forces received a large group of heroes to utilize as motivation, and the United States received the morale boost that it desperately needed.

The United States Coastal Defenses

Every aspect of the Doolittle Raid that was positive to the United States was disastrous to the Japanese. The entire incident was highly embarrassing to the Japanese High Council and considered a large loss of face, a concept very important to the cultures of the Far East. Just as the United States needed a symbolic attack against Japan to regain morale and credibility in the rapidly deteriorating Pacific Theater, the Japanese needed to launch an attack which would help them to regain the confidence of their people.

The Japanese military conceived an attack that would use incendiary bombs to cause wide spread forests fires in the American Northwest. The Japanese plan was to load a small plane into one of the long range I-class submarines, sail to the Pacific coast of the United States, launch the plane, drop several bombs over the forests of Oregon, and destroy American morale. The only obstacle standing between Japan and this goal was the coastal defenses that the United States was preparing.

After Pearl Harbor, the United States feared that the Japanese would follow with more direct attacks against the continental United States. The Japanese had already used their I-class submarines to create small engagements along the Pacific coast of the United States. In February of 1942, there was even an incident off the coast of Los Angeles which sparked the fire of the city’s anti-aircraft guns; however, there is still doubt whether or not the Japanese had even managed to fly over American airspace. Following the Doolittle Raid, Army Intelligence had reason to believe that Japan would launch a counter attack, citing the conclusion of operations in Asia of eight aircraft carriers and their return to the Japanese main fleet.

The United States was preparing for attack by aircraft carrier. The attack on Pearl Harbor broke the reliance of Hawaii as a barrier and the Pacific Fleet as a reaction force to any threat to the western coast of the United States. The focus of the United States defense was on several cities in California, such as Los Angeles or San Francisco, where much of the Pacific naval industrial complex was located, and these cities were strengthened with anti-aircraft guns and as much air power as could be spared. It would seem that while the defense of the west coast was strengthened, the overall goal was to make a large scale Japanese attack painful but not impossible. Even after the Allied victory at the Battle of Midway restored a naval balance of power in the Pacific, the west coast of the United States was still vulnerable to Japanese attack.

Japan’s Response to the Doolittle Raid

Despite the losses at Midway making a large scale attack of the Pacific coast of the United States a grave risk , Japan was still committed to responding to the bombings of Tokyo by Lieutenant Colonel Doolittle. The losses suffered at Midway merely made the Japanese and American fleets a balanced and even match for each other. The final determination for the outcome of the war was still in the will of the warriors.

The Japanese continued with the plan to use a small float plane to drop bombs on the forests of the American northwest. Even if they could not achieve the results of a devastating and wide spread fire that would destroy much of the area, the shock of mainland America being bombed and large fires started could still be enough to break the will of the American people. The target, after all, was the will of the Americans. Any significant damage caused by the bombings would be an added bonus.

The Japanese selected Chief Warrant Officer Nubuo Fujita to pilot the mission. In the middle of August 1942, Chief Warrant Officer Fujita boarded the Japanese submarine I-25 and set sail for the United States. After arriving undetected at its position and being delayed for several days due to unfavorable weather, Chief Warrant Officer Fujita took off from I-25 on 9 September 1942 and dropped his two bombs over the forests of Oregon. The bombs caused 14 fires, but did not do serious damage and were quickly contained.

Despite the fact that large fires were not created by the bombings did not distract from one serious fact. Japan had just succeeded in doing what no other country had been able to do. The Japanese submarine I-25 had traveled across the Pacific Ocean, stopped near the west coast of the United States, and launched the first aerial bombardment of mainland American soil in history. It was a shocking event that should have been as monumental and destructive to the American will as the attack on Pearl Harbor.

The bombings of Oregon, however, failed to achieve any of the desired goals of the Japanese High Council. No uncontrollable fires were created. In addition, the attack did not capture many headlines outside of a few news articles in the western United States. The White House was extremely quiet about the whole event and the State of Oregon helped to maintain the secrecy. Jerrold Owen, the Defense Coordinator for the State of Oregon, sent a memorandum out to all the county defense coordinators in the state shortly after the bombing. “The information is not to be divulged except to key persons in your civilian defense organization, pending release of news by the War Department. The reason is obvious.”

Further failure of the Japanese bombing was that instead of breaking the American will, the attacks actually increased the morale of local civilian defense workers. Many of the defense workers had serious doubts that any type of attack could happen in their own backyards. One of the most difficult tasks to accomplish is a task that does not have any tangible evidence of need or payoff. The attack by Chief Warrant Officer Fujita provided exactly the type of evidence that was needed. The effects of the bombing were caught early and caused almost no damage with no injury or loss of life.

Subsequent Japanese Attacks on the United States Mainland

The bombing of 9 September was not the only attack that Japan launched against the continental United States. On several occasions prior to the aerial bombardment, the Japanese would use the I class submarine to attack various targets along the Pacific coast, including oil depots and a fort, Fort Stevens. The aerial bombing by Chief Warrant Officer Fujita was, however, one of the more daring assaults launched by the Japanese.

Following Chief Warrant Officer Fujita’s flight, the Japanese seemed to lose interest in the aerial raids of Oregon. The Japanese war efforts shifted back to the Pacific were the Allied efforts were proving successful in reclaiming territories lost to the Japanese in the initial months of the war. Despite turning their attentions from the continental United States, the Japanese were not done with their attempts at assaulting the American will with attacks against the homeland. After over two years of silence, the Japanese would once again attempt to set the forests of the United States ablaze. Instead of using planes, though, the Japanese decided to switch to balloons. These balloons were released from Japan and drifted across Pacific along the jet stream to cause approximately 342 incidents.

Despite the large number of attempts, there are no reports that any of these balloons succeeded in the ultimate goal of the Japanese by causing destructive fires and wide spread panic. The United States military quickly became aware of these balloons and sent out several memorandums to state governors between January and March of 1945. Information pertaining to events involving these balloons was kept closely guarded and was only allowed to be released to small groups of people. The press, radio, or the public assembly was specifically mentioned for information to not be released to.

In general, however, the balloons were little more than a nuisance for local communities. The damaged caused by the balloons and their attacks was small and easily contained. There was only one major incident where one of the balloon bombs found its way into the history books by causing the only deaths from enemy action on the United States mainland. On 5 May 1945, a local Oregon woman and five teenagers were killed when they discovered a balloon stuck in a tree while picnicking near Bly, Oregon.

The attacks conducted by the Japanese on the mainland of the United States, while bizarre in nature, were of a sound military concept. The Japanese were hoping to regain some of the honor lost by the raids conducted by Lieutenant Colonel Doolittle. They were hoping to break the will of the American people by attacking the United States on its own ground. The Japanese wanted to cause devastation and confusion on American soil. The fact that none of these goals were accomplished, however, do not take away from the fact that the raid by Chief Warrant Officer Fujita was a bold move by a bold opponent.
 
Notes

1. Millet, Allan R. and Peter Maslowski, For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States of America, (New York, New York: The Free Press, 1994).
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid, 422.
4. Glines, C.V. (COL.), Story/Raid: Doolittle Raiders, 2002, http://www.doolittletokyoraiders.com/doolittle_raid.htm.
5. Goebel, Greg, The North American B-25 Mitchell, 2010, http://www.vectorsite.net/avb25.html.
6. Glines, Doolittle Raiders.
7. Goebel, The B-25.
8. U.S. Navy, Doolittle Raid on Japan, 18 April 1942, 2001, http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/events/wwii-pac/misc-42/dooltl.html.
9. Glines, Doolittle Raiders.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Woodbury, Chuck, World War II Air Raid of Oregon Was a Real Bomb!, Outwest no. 11 (July 1990). http://www.outwestnewspaper.com/bomboregon.html.
13. Ibid.
14. Conn, Stetson, Rose C. Engelman, and Byron Fairchild, Guarding the United States and Its Outposts, (Washington, D.C.: Center for Military History United States Army), 2000, http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/guard-us/index.htm#contents.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. Woodbury, Air Raid of Oregon
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Oregon State Defense Council. 1942. Jerrold Owen. http://arcweb.sos.state.or.us/exhibits/ww2/threat/pdf/news.pdf
24. Ibid.
25. Portland Journal. “Morale of civilian defense workers raised by Jap raid.” Portland Journal. September 15, 1942. http://arcweb.sos.state.or.us/exhibits/ww2/threat/pdf/news.pdf.
26. Oregon State Archives Exhibit. Bombs Fall on Oregon: Japanese Attack the State. 2008. http://arcweb.sos.state.or.us/exhibits/ww2/threat/bombs.html
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid.
29. Oregon State Government. 1945. Memorandum to Governor Snell. Jack Hayes. http://arcweb.sos.state.or.us/exhibits/ww2/threat/pdf/bomb.pdf.
30. Ibid.
31. Oregon State Archives, Bombs Fall on Oregon.

And so the Emperor of Japan devised a daring scheme to settle the score. Japan would do something that no other country had done before. Emperor Hirohito wanted to bomb the American mainland. He wanted Japanese planes to drop their bombs on the continental United States. He wanted to bomb….Oregon.

The task fell upon Nobuo Fujita, a pilot in the Japanese Air Force. He was loaded up onto a submarine and traveled across the Pacific. Submarine operations on the West Coast were already conducted by the Japanese, though they were relatively unsuccessful. They did, however, prove that a submarine could pass through American coastal defenses.

Fujita’s plane took off from the Japanese submarine on 9 September 1942 and, loaded with its incendiary bombs, flew towards Oregon with the intent of fire bombing the forests. Its intent was to spread fear that the Japanese could again attack America as well as to demoralize the American people in their faith of the American coastal defenses. Though the bombs dropped, they did not cause any great fire and the news was quickly suppressed by the government to prevent panic. Similar small actions took place in Oregon, including some high altitude balloons that would attempt to once again burn the Oregon forests. The results were small and often failures, though one balloon did explode upon discovery by local residents, killing six. They were the only American civilian casualties on the continental United States during the war.

While the Fujita’s mission failed in almost every sense aside from being able to drop the bombs, he is still the only man in the history of the US to ever bomb the American mainland.

For a more complete look at this attack, its causes and ramifications, please check here.

While in Asia Minor in 51 BC, Julius Caesar led an army of the Roman Republic to track down the Roman general Pompeii. Caesar and Pompeii had Rome in the midst of a civil war for power of the Roman legions. After Caesar’s victories in Europe, Pompeii was forced to flee towards the edges of the Republic. Upon arrival in Egypt, which was in the middle of its own civil war between Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII, Pompeii was killed by agents of Cleopatra as she sought Roman aid in her battles. Her stratagem almost worked. While Caesar was appreciative of her dispatching Pompeii, it was not until she had seduced him that Caesar committed Roman forces to the Egyptian war and won the crown for Cleopatra.

Cleopatra bore a son for Caesar from their affair, named Caesarion or “Little Caesar”. As for Caesar himself, he returned to Rome and entered the city both as a conquering hero and as the new dictator. The Roman Empire was conceived from this action of Caesar, but not yet born. Caesar’s reign was short lived as he was quickly assassinated by members of the Senate in 44 BC. Instead of restoring peace and order to the Republic, their actions spurred Caesar’s nephew Octavian into forming an alliance with Marc Antony and Lepidus. Between Octavian and Antony’s popularity among the army, their alliance was successful in suppressing the alleged revolt of the Senators and their general Brutus, and Rome was divided mainly between Octavian and Antony. Octavian took the western half of what was becoming the Empire while Antony took the east.

Octavian was left with the large task of putting down the rest of the revolts and easing the unrest in Rome and the surrounding areas. Antony was free to travel to the relatively more peaceful eastern region. While among the Greeks, he participated in much of the Greek culture and games. Antony heavily taxed the Greeks and took much of their provisions to raise his armies. In battle in the east, he was hardly very successful however. Though he won a string of victories, he also suffered defeats. The combination of the hardship he placed on the Greeks combined with a less than glorious military record did little to earn him any friends in the east or impress his allies back home.

Antony, however, found a way to make matters even worse back home. While in Asia Minor, he ordered Cleopatra to appear and answer to charges of providing aid to his enemies. Cleopatra was still a strikingly beautiful woman and she had the confidence of not just a queen but one who had already seduced one Roman general. Arriving at Antony’s camp in Tarsus dressed as the goddess Venus, she began her seduction of Antony. Her success did much to bring the future downfall of the general.

To begin with, Antony was married to Octavian’s sister. As the affair became more public, it was a matter that caused constant shame to her and, by extension, Octavian. It could easily be seen as a matter of honor that Octavian would have to deal with Antony. In addition, Antony was becoming hopelessly attached to Cleopatra. This level of attachment was an annoyance in to military matters at first, but, as it will be later shown, proved absolutely disastrous. Finally, there was the matter of Caesarion. As an actual son to Julius Caesar, Caesarion could make claim to the Roman throne. While Roman law made it illegal to marry non-citizens, thus making the offspring of any union ineligible for inheritance, matters of law seldom affected rulers or potential rulers from pursuing what they perceived as birthrights. Marc Antony’s relationship with Cleopatra and the child made him highly influential to the boy and a further threat to Octavian’s rule.

At last, the rift between Octavian and Antony had reached the breaking point and Octavian declared war on Egypt in 31 BC after several years of propaganda warfare between the two. With the declaration of war against Cleopatra, Antony sided with the Egyptians, seeing this as his opportunity to take full control of Rome. Many of Octavian’s enemies also sided with Antony. In accounts given by the ancient historian Plutarch, Marc Antony had over 100,000 infantry under his command by September of 31 BC as well as 1200 cavalry. His armies were greater than what Octavian could have raised, and he was regarded by both sides of the conflict as one of the greatest land generals alive.

This is where the attachment to Cleopatra would prove fatal for his dreams, however. Cleopatra wanted a victory at sea. She asked Antony to meet Octavian on the seas and have the navy determine their fate. While Antony was initially opposed, and despite the advice of all his commanders, Antony agreed to Cleopatra’s plans. This was a shock to everyone, including Octavian, who is reported to have offered Antony safe voyage and enough land in Italy to stage his entire army for a land battle. One of Antony’s own captain’s is believed to have said, “O, my general, what have our wounds and swords done to displease you, that you should give your confidence to rotten timbers? Let Egyptians and Phoenicians contend at sea, give us the land, where we know well how to die upon the spot or gain the victory.” However, a sea battle was what was to be conducted, and on 2 September 31 BC, the naval battle of Actium began.

The problem that the Romans under Antony had with the sea attack was that while they possessed a great many ships, they did not have experienced sailors to take charge of them. In addition, the Egyptian ships were quinqueremes. These were large warships with catapults that were designed to inflict heavy damage on fixed locations and had bronze plated rams to plow through enemy ships. They also weighed up to 300 tons. The quinqueremes were gigantic boats that were difficult to move when fully manned. With the shortage of oarsmen and sailors that Antony had, they would prove even more so. In an effort to combat this, Antony ordered that ships crews be consolidated and that any ship that could not be manned be burned.

Octavian, on the other hand, had a well manned navy. In addition, he sailors were using liburnium ships. These were smaller, faster, and more nimble. While they could not stand against Antony’s quinqueremes in a one on one, head to head battle, Octavian’s commanders ordered the liburnium vessels to circle around Antony’s ships. Being faster and better able to cut through the water, and also containing full crews of well trained sailors, Octavian’s ships were able to swoop in and fire their darts and arrows at the crews of Antony’s ships. They would then swoop out of Antony’s range before the Egyptians had a chance to do any real damage.

The battle on the Ionian Sea started at noon as was well in progress for several hours. No one side, however, had managed to create any type of decisive maneuver or attack. Despite the lack of sailors and maneuverability on Antony’s part, his more heavily armored ships were keeping the battle fairly even with Octavian’s quicker ships and more attack oriented tactics. Then something odd happened. For seemingly no reason at all, Cleopatra ordered a retreat of her ships. Seeing Cleopatra retreat, Marc Antony quickly left the battle that was still in progress, and fled after her. It was not long after that that the remaining fleet of Marc Antony surrendered to Octavian.

The aftermath of so cowardly a flight by the Egyptians, and the way Antony charged after Cleopatra, were incredible. There was still the matter of the 100,000 soldiers and 1200 cavalry nearby. Octavian sent messengers to those men, asking their surrender and to join him. Initially, these men refused as they were extremely loyal to Antony and did not believe the tales of his retreat. After several days, however, and the flight of the majority of their own officers, the great army that Antony had raised put down their arms and accepted the terms of Octavian. Antony, himself, was never able to place himself in such an tactically advantageous position as he had at Actium. After several more defeats and the belief that Cleopatra had been captured during the fighting in Alexandria in 30 BC, he committed suicide. As for Cleopatra, after failing in an attempt to seduce Octavian following Antony’s death, she too committed suicide.

The greatest effect to come from the Battle of Actium, however, was what it did for Octavian and Rome. With the war and his subsequent actions, Antony was now a traitor to Rome. This meant that all the power that he held became Octavian’s. Octavian’s victory at Actium established himself not only as sole ruler of the Roman dominion, but also realized the efforts of his uncle 13 years before by finishing the transition of Rome from republic to empire.

While this act is hardly new for the history of France, what is interesting is the level of controversy that surrounded the massacre that occurred during the Feast of Saint Bartholomew. While the involvement of the French crown in the killings is not in doubt, the question remains as to whether or not there was a wide spread conspiracy by the crown to kill the Huguenots.

France, like much of Europe at the time, was in a constant state of turmoil. The threat of Turkish invasion was ever looming. There was also the consistent general threats of attack from neighboring countries, namely Spain and King Philip II. In addition, after the success of the Protestant Reformation, ever expanding pockets of Protestants lead to the rise of the Huguenots in France. This sect of Protestant Christianity, which followed the teachings of John Calvin, had caused a tension in France that resulted in several civil wars. By 1572, another outbreak of religious violence was appearing on the horizon.

The war between the Huguenots and the French monarchy was on a low simmer by 1570 when, at Saint Germain, King Charles IX of France signed a peace treaty with Admiral Coligny who led the Huguenots. In exchange for peace, Admiral Coligny agreed to pledge his troops in support of a planned French war against Spain while King Charles IX arranged a marriage between his sister, Margaret of Valois, and the protestant Henry of Bourbon, future King Henry IV of France.

The treaty worked as peace and order were restored. Admiral Coligny even became a trusted adviser to King Charles IX as they began planning their war with Spain. Charles’ mother, Catherine de Medici, was working to earn favor on all sides at the time through endless politicking and marriage arrangements. However, her favor was slipping with the king. In an odd decision, Catherine declares to Charles that if he does not call off the pending war with Spain, she will seclude herself in Florence and take with her the Duke of Anjou, the king’s brother. The king went about following the request of his mother and ordered a council to discuss the matter in August of 1571.

Admiral Coligny was firm in his support for war with Spain. The rest of the council, however, sided with the king. This was likely due to a combination of the religious differences between the very Catholic council and Coligny, as well as seeking to maintain favor with King Charles and the influential Catherine. In a moment of rashness, Admiral Coligny is reported to have exclaimed that if war were not made with Spain, another war may be expected.

This was an extremely detrimental statement for Coligny to make. On the one hand, one could attribute it to the general threat made by nobles and military leaders of the time when they were set on a certain path. The Huguenot position was not liked by the Catholic community, however. Just a few years prior to these events, Huguenot thought had shifted from the absolute divine right of leadership of the monarchy as supported by the Catholic Church to the more Calvinistic view. This view stated that a king only had divine authority as long as they obey the will of God and divine law, and any violation of that would result in the loss of authority of the king. This contained huge ramifications for the monarchy if held to be the popular opinion and further separated the Huguenots from the rest of the French Court. When that attitude was combined with the general threat made by Coligny at the war council, it could easily be considered tantamount to a threat of war against the French Crown.

In addition, the upcoming wedding between Henry of Bourbon and Margaret of Valois was not easing the tensions between the French citizens. The Pope refused to accept or acknowledge a marriage with the protestant Henry. French Parliament, likely from a fear of losing their seats of power to the influx of protestants, also held issue with the marriage. Finally, the wedding was to be conducted in Paris, a very Catholic, very anti-protestant city.

The wedding was scheduled for 18 August 1572 and Paris began to fill with protestant nobles eager to support their prince’s rise and marriage. King Charles had vouched for the safety of these nobles, to include Admiral Coligny who was still the leader of the Huguenots. Charles, after all, still favored peace within his borders and appreciated the alliance with Coligny. The weeding occurred, however, with little incident. Coligny and several protestant leaders remained in Paris for some time after the wedding in order to continue talks with the king.

Catherine, who saw Coligny’s statement the previous year as a threat of war against the king, sought to end the influence and imagined damage that Coligny was causing France. Catherine ordered the assassination of Coligny. On the morning of 22 August, a musket shot was fired at Coligny. The shot struck the Admiral, but the wound was only minor. The failed assassination drove the king closer to Coligny and further from the influence of Catherine.

This state of favor was to last only a day, though. On 23 August, Catherine and the king’s brother, the Duke of Anjou, sought out King Charles. While the accounts differ on the number of visits and there is little record of what was said, it is known that the conversation revolved around the successful killing of Coligny. Likely, Catherine brought up the Admiral’s statements during the war council, comparing them to a threat of war against Charles. It is also likely that she told Charles of recent plans of the Huguenots to march on Paris to avenge the attempted murder of Coligny. She pleaded with Charles to prevent another civil war by taking quick and decisive action while they had the chance.

Charles eventually agreed and sided with Catherine. He ordered that Coligny, along with several other prominent Huguenot nobles, be killed. After the murder of Coligny, the killing of the other nobles was relatively easy. They were all given housing in the same neighborhood, a measure that was supposed to ensure their safety. The citizens of Paris were then organized into a frenzied mob through the exclamations that the Huguenots were planning another civil war. It took little effort to turn the anti-protestant sentiment in the city into a raging mob that massacred thousands of their fellow citizens for a belief. The violence quickly spread outside of Paris and into the neighboring regions, and it was several weeks before King Charles was able to stop the killing of the French protestants.

The states that the murder of Coligny was premeditated but that the subsequent massacre was “the outcome of cruel impulse”. This is true to an extent. Coligny and his five main supporters were planned to be killed. There were plans to have them killed during the previous civil war. At the time of their death, however, there was a concerted effort on Catherine’s part to vilify the Huguenots. The success of the monarchy’s propaganda campaign in stirring up the mobs following Coligny’s death was based on a known anti-protestant bias. While the citizenry acted on “cruel impulse”, to say that the crown did not know such actions would happen is a very long stretch indeed.

LT Horn was summoned several days later to be reassigned from Military Intelligence to the new organization named Monuments, Fine Arts, and Artifacts (MFAA). The MFAA was dedicated to tracking down, authenticating, and returning the plunder of Nazi Germany to its rightful owners. The high brass of US forces in Europe were committed to returning the stolen pieces to the countries that owned them in order to return the cultural pride and history to the people. LT Horn’s first assignment for the MFAA was locate the Crown Jewels of the Holy Roman Empire.

The Holy Roman Empire formed much of what is now Germany, Poland, Austria, and Hungry. Tracing its roots back to Charlemagne, the key artifacts that the Empire held were its Crown Jewels and the Spear of Destiny, the legendary spear that is rumored to have pierced the side of Christ at the Crucifixion. These jewels, which included the crown and scepter worn by the warrior kings of Charlemagne and Fredrick Barbosa as well as the sword that annointed loyal sons of Germany as the knight protectors of the Empire, were the symbol of kingly power to the German people. They were a prize and fascination of Hitler, who one can argue envisioned himself as a reincarnation of one of those great kings. The Crown Jewels were also missing from the collection found in Nuremberg.

Hitler’s Holy Relics is the story of LT Horn’s journey to find those jewels. It is filled with his search, fueled by a fear of a Nazi resurgence using the Jewels as a rallying point. It also contains the ominous undertones of a possibly of a Nazi filled rebirth of the Teutonic Knights, the ancient and sacred German order of knights that protected the Crown Jewels and the Holy Roman Empire.

Sidney Kirkpatrick does a splendid job at weaving his well researched notes and interviews into a fascinating and compelling story that reads much like a Dan Brown novel. There is very little action, but the lack of actual danger does little to take away from the threat of danger that LT Horn’s search produces. A fairly easy read, one may be disappointed in the lack fighting that occurs. If, however, one is interested in German culture and a thumb-sketch look at Germanic history, this is an excellent book and well worth the read.

West Germany, and West Berlin in particular, was a major issue for the Russians. It was a democratic, capitalistic city that lived right in the middle of the Communist sea. While there were checkpoints and ports of entry between East and West Germany, the citizenry of Berlin could literally look across the street and see how the other side lived. With the help of its allies in the west, West Germany began to thrive and prosper. Its citizens were afforded the right to a free press, freedom of speech, and all the other aspects of a democracy.

East Germany, on the other hand, suffered like the other Soviet territories. Nationalization and the communist lifestyle meant allegiance was owed to the party. Businesses were run on the state’s schedule and fulfilled the state’s demands. Rather than being freed of from the bondage of Hitler and his Reich, the East Germans exchanged one dictator for another. And yet, right across the street was a city that was putting that past behind them. In addition to that, West Germany offered the chance of escape from Soviet control into the main lands of West Germany that belonged to the western occupiers or to another country that was far away from their Communist masters.

The heads of state in the USSR recognized this problem early on. In response to the founding of West Germany, Russia instituted a land blockade of western goods into the fledgling city in an attempt to starve West Germany and force its western backers to give up on it. With a withdrawal of English and American support, the USSR could then annex Berlin and assimilate it into its empire. In response to the blockade, the United States and England organized the massive lifts of the Berlin Air Drop. West Berlin was supplied with food and fuel, and in May of 1949, the Soviets ended their blockade. The problem of Berlin still stood.

Following the end of the blockade, East Germans began to yearn for the prosperity that their western brothers and sisters were enjoying. A life of limited to no social mobility, lack of control, sedition, and service to a foreign government proved to be more intolerable by the day. East Germans began to escape from their Soviet control to West Germany, the majority of them leaving through West Berlin. An estimated 2.5 million Germans fled from East Germany at an astonishing rate. By 1961, nearly 2,000 East Germans were making the exodus a day.

The annoyance that was West Berlin was now a major problem for the Soviet Union. It was also a problem that was two-fold. The first part of this problem was the fact that the Cold War was an ideological war. It was a war between Communism and Capitalism. The Soviets were exclaiming the joys of the Communist life where all people were truly equal and social class did not exist. Prosperity for all citizens came from the state because everyone worked together to make the state prosperous. In East Germany, however, there were 2,000 Soviet citizens a day that were saying that this was not the case by running away from the state. Their leaving the USSR was a statement that affairs in the Soviet Union were not prosperous and that they did not enjoy the classless lifestyle of true equality. This was a very serious issue to the Soviet Union as it was a public display that paradise did not exist within Soviet control.

The second part of the problem the USSR had with the mass emigrations was who was leaving. Anyone who had the money to go was trying to go. In a capitalist economy, this would be the middle and upper class citizens. It was the professionals such as lawyers and doctors, skilled laborers, and intellectuals. It was the very people that the Soviet government of East Germany needed to survive and grow.

The loss of the professionals meant that there were fewer caregivers, accountants, bankers, and similar skills. Without them, the healthcare system was becoming vastly overloaded and money was spent ineffectively or squandered. The absence of the intellectuals drained the East German ability to teach and educate their citizens. Without adequate skilled laborers, general maintenance fell into disrepair in an area that still had much to rebuild after the war. The combined effect from losing all of these talents in a very short period was disastrous to the already troubled East German economy.

The Soviet Union had to respond to this great threat. They had to act. A mere blockade was not going to be effective against such a problem. A message had to be sent. A symbol had to be created to represent the Soviet’s ability to maintain its own people. The USSR decided to create such a symbol.

On the night of 12 August, Soviet troops laid over 30 miles of barbed wire through the heart of Berlin. By the morning of the 13th, the East German government followed their orders from Moscow and issued the decree that East Germans were forbidden to travel to West Berlin while the number of checkpoints that allowed westerners into East Berlin were drastically reduced. Western governments worked fast and threatened a trade embargo against East Germany, but the Soviets responded with a threat to reinstate a land blockade of West Berlin. Unable to afford to maintain constant air supplies of West Berlin should the blockade be reinstated, the west bowed to the Soviets. Emboldened by their successful thwarting of western influence in the matter, East Germany shut down more and more checkpoints in the following days.

These actions were not enough, however. After all, the barbed wire and closed checkpoints were a statement. It was also one which conveyed the connotation of military oppression as only barbed wire can. Besides, statements are so often forgotten and ignored. They can be changed. Something else needed to be done. Something visionary had to happen in order for the Soviet Union to “protect its citizens from the pernicious influence of the decadent capitalist west” as the East German government would soon claim.

A piece of the Berlin Wall that still resides in Berlin. Berlin residents used graffiti to protest the walls existence.

For almost 30 years, the Berlin Wall continued to grow in scope as it cut 28 miles through Berlin and 75 miles around West Berlin to effectively separate it from the rest of East Germany. Electric fences and mine fields were added, not to prevent western forces from spreading their decadent influence into East Germany but to keep East Germans from escaping. What became a logical extension of what started in Berlin, the USSR also built a wall along most of the border between East and West Germany.

The Iron Curtain had literally closed with the closing of the Germany borders and the erection of the wall. The Berlin was became a visual symbol of the Cold War and Iron Curtain. It would not be until 9 November 1989 when the wall would finally fall. Segments still remain, scattered throughout the world as a reminder that military might and force is not always directed out towards some other country, but that it occasionally turns inward towards its own people.

With the mandatory redrawing of the maps that war so often forces, two countries were left standing on top: the United States and the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics. There was already tension between the two nations in the final years of World War II. After all, the two countries were ideologically opposites of each other. On the western half was a free enterprise society that required the class system in order to function. In the east was the radical model of a classless society that devolved into oppressive dictatorships and regimes. By the end of the war in Europe, the Soviet model had already moved from its classless state and the signs of what is was to become were already taking form.

Several US generals, the most vocal being General Patton, already knew that a fight was coming and urged the swift invasion of Russia. The peace talks and divisions of Central Europe had already spread the seeds of concern among the top echelons of American government so much so that the United States feared what would happen if Russia was able to truly enter the war in the Pacific. And so two bombs fell upon Japan, ending the war before Russia was able to mobilize.

As with all great events and breakthroughs, however, the superiority of the US weapon was not to be the Americans alone for long. Just like the breakthrough that led to agriculture, the gun, or the four minute mile, once the initial burst into the atomic age occurred, it was quickly followed by others. Before long, the United States and the USSR had created enough nuclear weapons to destroy every major city in either country. With the invention of the intercontinental ballistic missile, the threat and ease of launch was even greater.

Because the US did not invade Russia following the fall of Nazi Germany, the end of World War II resulted in an uneasy state of constant tension known as the Cold War. The countries of the world were divided into three classes. The “first world” countries belonged to the capitalist countries under the sphere of influence of the United States and, later, NATO. “Second world” countries were those that fell under the influence of the USSR. “Third world” countries belonged to everyone else and suffered the most from Cold War.

Another interesting event had started to develop around this time. While the United Nations (UN) was created in similar fashion to the League of Nations with the intent of arbitrating international conflict and preventing further war, it ended up being built in such a way that neither the United States nor the USSR could have an upper hand in global events. Both powers were granted permanent seats on the major councils. Both powers had veto rights. Neither one, by themselves, could force a decision. With politics being what they are, however, this in turn lead to the creation of the Warsaw Pact and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

In addition to adding to the political power base that would be needed in the UN, the treaties that countries signed in order to gain admittance into these organizations pledged mutual military aid. While strength in numbers is not an old concept, nor is one country allying with another for the purpose of waging war against a shared enemy, such as the US and Russia were forced to do, the level of interconnection and cooperation that these treaties produced were rather remarkable for what was supposed to be a time of peace.

Of course, these treaties in themselves had political aims as well for to invade a member of a Warsaw Pact country would be considered by Russia as tantamount to invading Mother Russia herself. In similar fashion, an attack on a NATO ally was an assault on the United States. The smaller countries that formed the border between East and West Europe eagerly sought admittance to one or the other group not only for protection, but to avoid being absorbed by the other side. Thus, a line in the sand was drawn.

With an inability for the US to deal directly with the countries already aligned with Russia, and vice versa, the only other way to expand political and military influence was to then turn to the third world. Proxy wars were fought and many battles waged. Very rarely, however, where the combatants either US or Soviet soldiers. Instead, it was locals of the country seeking to create a new government. Either the rebels or the state would be provided financial or logistical support, depending on which victor would better suit the policy of containment. Such was the series of events that happened in Cuba and Afghanistan to list the more notable proxies. Despite all of these proxy wars and battles, however, there was still the tension between the two countries that needed expression.

This is where history comes to the most interesting aspect of all with regards to the Cold War. The rebirth of the Champion. The great contest of the single combatant or small team. While this was often expressed in sporting events, there is no doubt that the Champion is of distinctly military origins.

In ancient times, battles could be decided through single combat: Champion versus Champion. One of the most well known examples of this is in the story of David and Goliath. Two men faced off, and when David killed Goliath, the Palestinian army withdrew from the field. And now, in modern times, the Champion was reborn.

Great battles were fought between the Soviets and the Americans in all aspects of the Champion. The “Miracle on Ice” when the United States hockey team beat the Soviets in the 1980 Olympic games. The launching of Sputnik and Yuri Gagarin who was the first man to go into space. Neil Armstrong landing on the moon. These were all great military victories for their respective countries. Victories that could not have been achieved on the battlefields, but on different fields of battle.

So while the US and USSR never truly came to blows, the world was able to experience two great powers battling each other in another form. While the lack of actual combat between the two is a disappointment to a student of battles and armies, the rebirth of the Champion, however brief the reign lasted, was a beautiful thing.

The Roman Empire was in a state of decline. Rapid expansion coupled with years of hereditary leadership that often proved more incompetent with each successive Caesar had taken the Empire into a state of decadence. The glory that was Roman was founded on its military expansion policies. Much of the world was already conquered by them, however, and internal strife over rulers had split the Empire in two.

By the 4th century, the Huns were also reaching their heights of power and might, sweeping west across the map faster than people could redraw the lines. The tribes of the Gothic people, desperate for protection for the pillaging and marauding Huns, had petitioned the Eastern Emperor Valens for entry to the Empire to farm. After all, the Roman army was still the premier army in the world, and Roman protection still carried a lot of weight along the edges of the Empire. Valens, likely eager to have more people willing to provide food for his empire and troops for his armies, welcomed the Goths in.

The Roman commanders in charge of the provinces that the Goths lived in where not always as gracious as the Emperor had been. Much as a flood of new immigrants causes issues and disturbances in modern society as they displace the lower class, such was the case here. The difference was that Roman law only extended to Roman citizens and all others were subject to the military. After repeated transgressions by the Roman armies, the Goths rose up in revolt. Such was the start of the Gothic War.

The Gothic War raged as a series of battles and skirmishes between the Goths and the Eastern Empire. Despite reinforcements from the Western Emperor, the war lasted for over two years. No one side was able to claim any decisive victory over the other. Eager to put an end to the uprising as well as stroke his own ego, Emperor Valens took charge of his army in 378 and reorganized his armies at Constantinople. Meanwhile, the Western Emperor, fearing a revolt from the Germanic tribes in his own lands, withdrew his troops.

Undisturbed by the loss of the soldiers, Emperor Valens sent 2,000 men under the command of Sebatianus towards Adrianople. Those troops met with a series of small victories against small parties of Gothic scouts and forces, which emboldened Valens and made the Emperor wish for a victory of his own. With the news on 6 August that the main army of the Goths was moving towards Adrianople, the Emperor saw a way to obtain a victory for himself as well as potentially end the conflict and restore order to his empire. He ordered the march of his main army of the Eastern Empire and met up with Sebatianus. News had also reached him that Emperor Gratian’s Western Empire Army was also on the march toward Adrianople to lend support and aid to Valens.

The Goths knew of the march of the Romans and were also tired of the conflict. On 8 August 378, the Gothic leader Fritigern sent an emissary to Emperor Valens to pursue terms of peace. The emperor refused the peace offer, so thirsty he was for his own glory. Instead, Emperor Valens led his army on a seven hour march to locate the Goth army.

The Romans found the Goths atop a hill early in the afternoon on 9 August. Both sides prepared their battle lines with the Gothic army forming a circular defense atop a hill and the Roman legions on the field below. Despite the fact that Emperor Gratian’s army had yet to met up with Emperor Valens, the Romans still believed that they held the numeric superiority. They were unaware of the fact that the Gothic cavalry was camped in better pastures nearby.

Fritigern again asked for peace terms with the Emperor and requested a hostage exchange. These were dismissed by the Emperor who was eager to commence the battle, even though it was against the advice of his military commanders who would have preferred to wait until they had the added strength of the Western Empire forces. The request for terms, however, was a bid by Fritigern to gain time for his cavalry to return. In addition to requesting the exchange, Fritigern ordered that the fields between the Goths and the Romans be burned.

Valens was set on battle and ordered the charge of his infantry. In doing so, he committed a huge tactical error. The lands that they were fighting in lay in modern day Turkey where August is still one of the hottest months of the year. His men had recently finished a seven hour march through what was probably temperatures in the high 90s, suffered the heat of the fires on the field, and then after all of this, forced to fight uphill. The Goths, on the other hand, had been set on the hill for most of the day. They had not needed to march over rough terrain, and instead of climbing up to fight, they had the advantage of running down.

Despite this, the battle started off with the Romans losing little ground. The center, under control of Emperor Valens himself, was hard pressed and made little gains in ground, but the left flank was having success. The legionaries were almost successful in reaching the main heart of the Gothic defense. Unfortunately for the Romans, the tactics to gain time had worked for the Goths as the Gothic cavalry rode in. Using a heavy cavalry, the Goths were better armed and armored than the Roman cavalry and swept through the Roman lines. Turning back the Roman offensive, the Gothic cavalry, followed by its infantry, decimated the Roman legions. Though no official numbers have been found, historians estimate that only one third of the Roman army survived the attack. Emperor Valens was not among the survivors.

The results of the battle was the near complete destruction of the army of the Eastern Empire and the death of the Eastern Emperor. With no major force to stop them, the Goths had not only won the war, but where able to ride through the Eastern Empire and conquer and acquire lands almost at will. The Western Empire was soon to follow and it can be argued that the Battle of Adrianople was the last great battle of the Roman Empire before its ultimate collapse.